HomeMy Public PortalAboutFox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring Report 2019
Fox Point Lake
2019 Water Quality Monitoring Report
Prepared for
Municipality of Chester
Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring Committee
By
Coastal Action
45 School Street, Suite 403, PO Box 489
Mahone Bay, N.S.
B0J 2E0
August 2020
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Table of Contents
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. 3
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.1. Fox Point Lake Background .............................................................................................. 5
1.2. Program Background ........................................................................................................ 6
1.3. Objectives and Scope of Work ......................................................................................... 6
1.4. Review of the 2018 Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring Report ........................... 7
1.5. Changes to the 2019 Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring Program ...................... 7
2. Water Quality Monitoring Results ........................................................................................... 8
2.1. Water Sampling ................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1. Physical Water Quality Parameters .......................................................................... 8
2.1.2. Chemical Water Quality Parameters ...................................................................... 16
2.1.3. Biological Water Quality Parameters ...................................................................... 20
2.2. Sediment Sampling ......................................................................................................... 21
3. Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 24
3.1. Algae Blooms in Fox Point Lake ...................................................................................... 24
3.2. Trophic State of Fox Point Lake ...................................................................................... 25
3.3. Potential for Nutrient Enrichment of Fox Point Lake ..................................................... 26
4. Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 28
5. References ............................................................................................................................. 29
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Drainage basin and sampling sites of Fox Point Lake. ..................................................... 5
Figure 2. One-time monthly water discharges from the three streams and the South Culvert
monitored at FPL from June-October 2019. ................................................................................... 8
Figure 3: Monthly water temperature from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June -
October 2019. Red line indicates the 20oC water temperature threshold for cold-water fish
species. .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 4: Monthly water temperature depth-profiles from the lake site at FPL from June-
October 2019. Note that 20oC is the water temperature threshold for cold-water fish species. 11
Figure 5: Monthly DO from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red
line indicates the 6.5 mg/L DO minimum for aquatic organisms as set by the CCME. ................ 12
Figure 6: Monthly dissolved oxygen depth-profiles from the lake site at FPL from June-October
2019. Red line indicates the 6.5 mg/L DO minimum for aquatic organisms, as set by the CCME .
....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 7: Monthly pH from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red
line indicates the 6.5-pH minimum for aquatic organisms, as set by the CCME.......................... 14
Figure 8. Monthly total dissolved solids from the lake and three stream sites at FPL fro m June-
October 2019. ............................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 9: Monthly total suspended solids from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-
October 2019. ............................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 10: Monthly total phosphorus concentrations from the lake, three stream sites and south
culvert site at FPL from June-October 2019. Red solid line indicates the 0.03 mg/L MOECC
guideline for streams and rivers, while the red dotted line indicates the 0.02 mg /L MOECC
guideline for lakes. ........................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 11: Monthly total nitrogen concentrations from the lake and three stream sites at FPL
from June-October 2019. Red line indicates the 0.9 mg/L guideline for freshwater
environments, as set by Dodds and Welch (2000). ...................................................................... 19
Figure 12. Monthly fecal bacteria concentrations from the lake and the three stream sites at FPL
from June-October 2019. Red solid line indicates the Health Canada 400 CFU/100 mL limit for
primary recreation in freshwater. ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 13: Carlson TSI for FPL using the mean Secchi disk depth (transparency), mean
chlorophyll a concentration and mean total phosphorus concentration within FPL in 201 9. From
Carlson, 1977. ............................................................................................................................... 26
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List of Tables
Table 1: Mean and range of stream discharge rates from June-October, 2019 at the three
stream sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018 results for comparison. ................................................ 9
Table 2: Mean and minimum summer DO concentrations from July-September 2019 at the four
sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018 results for comparison............................................................. 12
Table 3: Mean and minimum pH values from June-October, 2019 at the four sites, with 2015,
2016, and 2017 results for comparison. ....................................................................................... 15
Table 4: Mean and maximum phosphorus concentrations from June-October 2019 at the four
sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018 results for comparison............................................................. 18
Table 5: Mean and maximum nitrogen concentrations from June-October 2019 at the four sites,
with 2016, 2017, and 2018 results for comparison. ..................................................................... 19
Table 6: Concentration of metals within site sediment samples sampled on September 11th,
2019. Interim sediment quality guideline (ISQG) is the recommendation by CCME of total
concentrations of chemicals in surficial sediment, while the probable effect level (PEL) is the
CCME upper value in which adverse effects are expected (CCME, 2001). Nova Scotia
environmental quality standards (NSEQS) are sediment guidelines specifically for contaminated
sites set by the Nova Scotia Environment (NSE, 2014). Light yellow indicates parameters
approaching one of the guidelines, while red indicates an exceedance of one of the guidelines.
....................................................................................................................................................... 23
Table 7: Phosphorus concentrations in sediment samples from lake and river sites sampled on
September 11th, 2019. .................................................................................................................. 24
Table 8: 2019 FPL TSI scores (red) and trophic states, using the Carlson (1977) trophic
equations, for total phosphorus, chlorophyll a, and Secchi disk compared to previous years
(black italicized). ........................................................................................................................... 25
Table 9: Nutrient concentrations from surface and depth waters (below the thermocline) within
FPL, obtained on September 11th, 2019. ...................................................................................... 27
Table 10: Nutrient concentrations from the two South inlet sites, obtained on September 9 th,
2019 following the Hurricane Dorian rainfall event. .................................................................... 27
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1. Introduction
1.1. Fox Point Lake Background
Fox Point Lake (FPL) is a 1.4 km2 lake located on the Aspotogan Peninsula, within the
Municipality of Chester, Nova Scotia (Figure 1). FPL contains 11 small islands and has an
average depth of 4.9 m (Beanlands, 1980). The lake drains an area of 8 km2, with two inlet
streams – the north and south - and one outlet draining into St. Margaret’s Bay. The northern
inlet drains a forested region, crossing a wetland before reaching the lake, while the southern
inlet runs through the Aspotogan Golf Course. Residential properties, both year-round and
seasonal, line the lake perimeter.
Figure 1: Drainage basin and sampling sites of Fox Point Lake.
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1.2. Program Background
In 2014, due to concerns from residents about the water quality of FPL, the Municipality of
Chester created the Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring Committee (WQMC). Due to
development around the lake by Aspotogan Ridge – a 550-acre community with development
plans for 344 residential units and an 18-hole golf course – the rate of rainfall-induced
sedimentation plumes in FPL spiked. The sedimentation events, occurring near the southern
inlet which drains from the golf course, raised concerns for the health of FPL by citizens.
To monitor the water quality conditions and track changes within the lake, Coastal Action was
contracted in 2015 by the Municipality of Chester to join the WQMC and develop and
implement a water quality program. The program focuses on four site locations (Figure 1)
chosen to monitor water quality incoming, within, and exiting the lake. Monitoring activities
within the program are conducted by a small group of trained volunteers, with the support of
Coastal Action staff.
Further details on the program can be found in the Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring
Program (2015), and program results are found in the Fox Point Lake Water Quality Monitoring
Reports from 2015-2018; all are available on request from the Municipality of Chester.
1.3. Objectives and Scope of Work
The objective of this program is to provide a multi-year water quality baseline of Fox Point Lake,
and monitor changes and the lake’s trophic state, to help inform decisions made regarding
development in the region and its effects on water quality. Within the WQMC, Coastal Action’s
scope of work includes:
• Ordering and ensuring correct bottles from BV Labs (formerly Maxxam Analytics)
• Creating and printing waterproof field sheets for each sampling month
• Calibrating and caring for the MODL-MOC YSI monthly
• Coordinating with volunteers for sampling days
• Coordinating the volunteer-collected water level and rainfall measurements
• Conducting one-time rainfall-dependent sampling with volunteers
• Conducting one-time field sediment sampling with volunteers
• Conducting field water sampling monthly with volunteers
• Conducting algal bloom sampling with volunteers
• Dropping off water samples at BV Labs in Bedford, NS
• Transferring data from field sheets, lab reports, and volunteers into a database and
analyzing data
• Attending WQMC meetings and presenting water quality results
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• Preparing the Fox Point Lake 2019 Water Quality Monitoring Program Report to
summarize results and recommendations for water quality related to Fox Point Lake
1.4. Review of the 2018 Fox Point Lake Water Quality
Monitoring Report
The trophic state of FPL was determined to be oligotrophic and appr oaching mesotrophic in
2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018; this indicates that there have not been any major changes in the
biological productivity of the lake from 2015-2018.
Thermal and oxygen profiles were conducted at one lake site in 2018. Thermal stratification of
the lake was observed during the temperature profile, while dissolved oxygen indicated a
depletion of oxygen at depth, with concentrations below 3 mg/L at the bottom waters of the
lake.
No algal blooms occurred in the lake during 2018, which was considered anomalous as the 2017
and 2016 bloom occurred at approximately the same time in mid to late June. However, trends
in algal blooms are hard to predict and can vary spatially.
Three of the four FPL sites did not exceed phosphorus guidelines in 2018. The South Inlet site
exceeded the 0.03 mg/L MOECC stream guideline as it has done from 2015-2017. Despite this
exceedance, the phosphorus concentration at the South Inlet site appeared to be decreasing, as
the maximum recorded phosphorus concentration in 2018 was 0.1 mg/L, which was the lowest
maximum value recorded since the inception of the program. The South Inlet stream appears
to be recovering from excessive phosphorus loading but is still exceeding guidelines.
The highest nitrogen concentration was recorded at the North Inlet, while the highest mean
nitrogen concentration was recorded at the South Inlet. The 2018 nitrogen concentrations
were not significantly different than 2017 concentrations. All four sample sites fell below the
0.9 mg/L threshold, while the Lake site exceeded the 0.3 mg/L guideline once (September 27,
2018), which was the first exceedance of the oligotrophic guideline since the beginning of the
program.
1.5. Changes to the 2019 Fox Point Lake Water Quality
Monitoring Program
In 2019, the fecal indicator bacteria species was switched from fecal coliforms to E. coli to
better align with Health Canada recommendations for monitoring freshwater environments. A
second sample site was added in the South Inlet stream and was sampled once during the 2019
season following a heavy rainfall event. This new site is located downstream of the original
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South Inlet site and has been placed immediately downstream of a new residential property
which has livestock and manure within the drainage area of the stream, thus posing a risk of
nutrient and bacteria contamination from overland runoff .
2. Water Quality Monitoring Results
2.1. Water Sampling
2.1.1. Physical Water Quality Parameters
2.1.1.1. Stream Discharge
Stream discharge rates were monitored at the two inlet sites – North and South – and the
Outlet site monthly from June to October 2019 (Figure 2). The discharge of a secondary South
Inlet (South Culvert) site was also measured once, during the rainfall-dependent sampling event
in September 2019. As stream depth and width can affect stream discharge, each stream’s
depth, width, velocity, and discharge are measured and calculated on an individual basis.
Discharges from the two inlet sites were, on average, lower than that of the outlet (Figure 2,
Table 1). The Outlet provided the greatest rate variability, ranging between 0.05 to 1.39 m3/s;
however, both the Outlet and the South Inlet sites’ range and mean discharge for 2019 are
comparable to previous years. The discharge at the outlet is the highest of all three steam
sites, which is expected as it is the sole outlet draining the lake.
Figure 2. One-time monthly water discharges from the three streams and the South Culvert monitored at FPL from June-October
2019.
0.00000
0.20000
0.40000
0.60000
0.80000
1.00000
1.20000
1.40000
1.60000
18-Jun-19 18-Jul-19 14-Aug-19 09-Sep-19 11-Sep-19 16-Oct-19Discharge (m³/s)North Inlet South Inlet Outlet South Culvert
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Table 1: Mean and range of stream discharge rates from June-October 2019 at the three stream sites, with 2016, 2017, and
2018 results for comparison.
North Inlet South Inlet Outlet
Mean Stream
Discharge Rate (m3/s)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.378
(0.213/0.157/-0.015)
0.106
(0.027/0.053/0.053)
0.670
(0.178/0.608/0.26)
Range of Stream
Discharge Rates (m3/s)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.134-1.197
(0.161-0.271/0.104-
0.195/-0.237-0.171)
0.036-0.311
(0.012-0.035/0.015-
0.106/0.022-0.105)
0.050-1.392
(0.032-0.540/0.254-
0.930/0.005-0.610)
2.1.1.2. Water Temperature and Stratification of Fox Point Lake
Water temperatures from the four FPL sites were recorded monthly during the 2019 program;
temperatures ranged from 8.9 to 22.7oC (Figure 3). Water temperatures were consistently
colder at the North and South Inlet sites than the Lake and Outlet . As streams are commonly
cooler than lakes, the cooler temperatures recorded at the inlet streams are expected. In
addition, as the Outlet is the point of drainage for the lake, the temperatures in the stream are
highly dependent on the lake temperatures and would therefore be elevated higher than the
two inlet streams.
Water temperatures increased from July to September, with the Lake and Outlet sites
exceeding 20oC – the temperature threshold for cold-water fish species (Nova Scotia Salmon
Association [NSSA], 2014). Although the two sites exceeded the 20oC threshold, the deeper
waters within the lake, deep cold-water pools within the Outlet, and the two colder inlet
streams provide ample thermal refuge for fish during the hotter months.
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Figure 3: Monthly water temperature from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red line indicates the
20oC water temperature threshold for cold-water fish species.
During the 2019 FPL program, a monthly water profile was conducted within the lake (Figure 4).
Between June to September, the profile shows the development and establishment of a
stratified water column, with warmer waters remaining at the surface (epilimnion) and the
cooler, more-dense waters settling to the lake bottom (hypolimnion). The thermocline – the
depth at which the water temperature rapidly changes – is located at the 6 to 10-m lake depth.
Although the surface waters of the lake exceeded the 20 oC threshold for cold-water fish,
temperatures were below the threshold at depths >6 m.
Due to the density differences between the epilimnion and hypolimnion, little mixing occurs
within the thermally stratified parts of the lake. By the end of September (during the rainfall
event), stratification begins to deteriorate (Figure 4), as the surface temperatures decrease, and
the thermocline covers a smaller area. October displayed a minimal thermocline, with
temperatures staying consistent down to a depth of 14 m. Fall turnover of the lake is expected
to occur in October when the lack of stratification encourages mixing of the waters at all
depths.
5
10
15
20
25
30
Temperature (oC)North South Outlet Lake
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Figure 4: Monthly water temperature depth-profiles from the lake site at FPL from June-October 2019. Note that 20oC is the
water temperature threshold for cold-water fish species.
2.1.1.3. Dissolved Oxygen and Stratification of Fox Point Lake
Dissolved oxygen (DO) within the water was recorded monthly at all four sites, from June to
October 2019 (Figure 5). DO ranged from 1.56 mg/L to 9.94 mg/L. The North Inlet consistently
had the lowest DO concentrations, while the highest concentrations were recorded within the
lake. The low velocity and minimal incline of the North Inlet stream may be factors in the low
DO measurements, as these factors limit the water’s ability to engulf oxygen from the air.
The low DO in the North Inlet may negatively affect aquatic organisms. DO is a requirement for
the survival of aquatic organisms, with a minimal threshold of 6.5 mg/L set by the Canadian
Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) for cold-water species (CCME, 1999). Of the
four sites, the Lake site was never below 6.5 mg/L; the Outlet minimally fell below the
threshold once in August (6.17 mg/L); the South Inlet fell below the threshold once (5.37 mg/L
on August 14th); and the North Inlet fell below the threshold on three of the six sampling dates
on July 18th (1.56 mg/L), August 14th (2.41 mg/L), and October 16th (5.51 mg/L). Although fish
can survive in low-DO environments for short periods of time, the low-DO environment in the
North Inlet may be causing physiological stress to fish in that stream.
Although the low-DO concentrations in the North Inlet are concerning, they are consistent with
previous years (Table 2). The reduction in DO during the summer is a consistent annual trend
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 5 10 15 20 25Temperature (oC)Depth (m)
June July August Rainfall September October
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due to the decreased ability for warmer waters to dissolve oxygen and the higher DO demand
during the growing season.
Figure 5: Monthly DO from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red line indicates the 6.5 mg/L DO
minimum for aquatic organisms as set by the CCME.
Table 2: Mean and minimum summer DO concentrations from July-September 2019 at the four sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018
results for comparison.
North Inlet South Inlet Outlet Lake
Mean Summer DO
(mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
5.39
(3.36/3.59/2.0)
7.45
(5.63/6.70/5.33)
8.16
(6.97/7.66/7.16)
9.16
(8.02/8.21/8.65)
Minimum Summer
DO (mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
1.56
(2.31/1.93/0.22)
5.37
(3.92/5.38/3.02)
6.17
(5.61/6.80/6.38)
8.67
(7.43/7.75/8.16)
DO was measured within the lake during the monthly water depth-profiles (Figure 6). There is
no difference in DO concentrations at depth in June, and minimal difference in July. By August,
there appears to be an established stratified DO column in the lake, which remains for the rest
of the sampling period. The reduction of DO concentrations within the hypolimnion is
associated with minimal mixing of the water column due to the presence of a thermocline in
the lake. The lack of mixing and minimal DO inputs from the epilimnion, along with the
continued oxygen demand from organisms, results in the decline in DO concentrations in the
hypolimnion until the water column mixes again during fall turnover (Smith and Bella, 1973).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)North South Outlet Lake
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The DO depth-profile within the lake appears to be a clinograde curve, with a negative
heterograde curve occurring in August. Of the four types of DO curves that can be observed
(orthograde, clinograde, negative heterograde, and positive heterograde), a clinograde curve
occurs when DO decreases in the hypolimnion layer due to microbial decomposition and other
oxygen demands. A negative heterograde curve can occur, with a pocket of low DO occurring
mid-profile, due to the accumulation and high oxygen demand of decomposing organic matter
being caught in the density boundary (Mackie, 2004). A negative heterograde curve has been
confirmed in previous years in FPL, with the clinograde curve occurring most predominantly
during the fall prior to the lake’s turnover.
The summer stratification of the lake may cause stress to organisms within the l ake. During the
August-October monthly profiles, the hypolimnion’s DO concentrations fell below 6.5 mg/L.
August appears to be the most concerning, as the decline in DO concentrations below the
CCME threshold occurs at shallow depth (6 m) and remains below the threshold for all depths
>6 m. Although the subsequent months did not fall below the threshold until after 6-m depth,
their hypolimnion waters had lower DO concentrations than in August, becoming hypoxic (<2
mg/L) and anoxic (<1 mg/L) – conditions which can reduce the ability to support aquatic life
(United States Geological Survey [USGS], 2014; Brylinsky, 2004).
Figure 6: Monthly dissolved oxygen depth-profiles from the lake site at FPL from June-October 2019. Red line indicates the 6.5
mg/L DO minimum for aquatic organisms, as set by the CCME.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20 25Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)Depth (m)
June July August Rainfall September October
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2.1.1.4. pH
pH, a measurement of the acidity of a liquid, was measured monthly at each of the four FPL
sites (Figure 7). Mean pH concentrations for the sites ranged from 4.98-pH at the North Inlet,
to 6.38-pH within the Lake (Table 3). pH values fell as low as 4.60-pH, occurring at the North
Inlet on September 9th; however, pH values at the North Inlet were not dissimilar from the
previous year.
Although most pH measurements fell below the 6.5-pH threshold set by the CCME (CCME,
2002), the acidity of the FPL waters is not a concern. As Nova Scotia has experienced high
amounts of acid precipitation in the past, and its geology limits the replenishment of base
cations to soils (NSSA, 2015), surface waters within the province are generally lower than the
6.5-pH threshold. In addition, though the FPL sites’ pH values are lower than 6.5 pH, many fish
species can survive in waters >5.0-pH (NSSA, 2014) and therefore it appears that the majority of
the time (save for the low sub-5.0 pH measurements in the North and South Inlets on October
17th) the acidity of the waters at FPL pose minimal threat to organisms.
Figure 7: Monthly pH from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red line indicates the 6.5-pH
minimum for aquatic organisms, as set by the CCME.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
pHNorth South Outlet Lake
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Table 3: Mean and minimum pH values from June-October 2019 at the four sites, with 2015, 2016, and 2017 results for
comparison.
North Inlet South Inlet Outlet Lake
Mean pH
(2016/2017/2018)
4.98
(5.17/5.01/5.15)
5.27
(5.64/5.23/5.44)
5.72
(5.74/5.47/5.74)
6.38
(6.39/6.91/6.71)
Minimum pH
(2016/2017/2018)
4.60
(3.88/4.36/4.49)
4.74
(4.1/4.85/4.78)
5.60
(5.04/5.59/5.08)
6.22
(5.66/6.08/6.10)
2.1.1.5. Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids (TDS) from the four FPL sites sampled monthly from June-October 2019
ranged from 19 mg/L to 51 mg/L (Figure 8). The highest TDS concentrations were consistently
measured within the North Inlet, while the remaining three sites never exceeded 32 mg/L.
Although TDS concentrations within FPL are higher than other locations and previous years, TDS
does not appear to be a problem for aquatic organisms. There is no guideline for TDS set by the
CCME for the protection of aquatic health; however, Hinch and Underwood (1985) found that
pristine Nova Scotian lakes had an average of 20 mg/L. The lake site within the FPL program
had an average of 33.3 mg/L in 2019, suggesting that the lake is not pristine and to some extent
affected by sedimentation. The presence of high TDS is not necessarily harmful as dissolved
materials can be from both anthropogenic and natural sources. As TDS does not have a
guideline for the protection of aquatic organisms, TDS concentrations do not appear to be
detrimental to FPL.
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Figure 8. Monthly total dissolved solids from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019.
2.1.2. Chemical Water Quality Parameters
2.1.2.1. Total Suspended Solids
Total suspended solids (TSS) were measured, at Maxxam Analytics Laboratory for each site
monthly, as the value of solids suspended in a water column which do not pass through a 45
µm glass fiber filter. For FPL, TSS ranged from <1 mg/L to 6.6 mg/L, (Figure 9). This range does
not include an unexplained outlier value of 87 mg/L recorded from the South Inlet site on
August 14, 2019. An increase in TSS concentrations was observed within the Lake and South
Inlet sites during the scheduled September and rainfall-dependent sampling events.
Although rainfall appears to influence TSS within FPL, concentrations are not a concern and are
consistent with Nova Scotian lakes and previous FPL sampling years. Following several rainfall
events in mid-September, both the monthly and the rainfall-dependent samples from the Lake
and South Inlet increased; increases may be associated with overland flow influences adding
sediment to both the stream and the lake. The elevated TSS concentrations were only 0.91
mg/L and 0.5 mg/L greater than mean concentrations for the South Inlet and Lake, respectively.
As the CCME has a guideline of a 10 mg/L allowable increase from baseline in waterbodies with
TSS ≤ 100 mg/L (CCME, 2002), the increases observed in FPL do not appear to be a threat to
aquatic organisms. The TSS measurements are consistent with past sampling, as no 2018 FPL
site’s TSS concentrations were significantly different than the 2017 measurements . In addition,
the mean Lake TSS concentration was 1.10 mg/L, well below the average 3.0 mg/L background
concentration of Nova Scotia lakes reported by Hinch and Underwood (1985).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)North South Outlet Lake
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Figure 9: Monthly total suspended solids from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019.
2.1.2.2. Total Phosphorus
Total phosphorus within FPL, monitored and analyzed at Maxxam monthly from June -October
2019, ranged from <0.004 mg/L to 0.2 mg/L (Figure 10, Table 4). The highest phosphorus
concentrations were consistently measured at the South Inlet, and were significantly different
from the North Inlet, Outlet, and Lake sites. The phosphorus concentration obtained at-depth,
below the thermocline in the lake, was 0.012 mg/L.
Two of the four FPL sites exceeded phosphorus guidelines in 2019. Ontario’s Ministry of
Environment and Climate Change (MOECC) has established two guidelines for phosphorus in
waterbodies: ≤ 0.02 mg/L for lakes, and ≤ 0.03 mg/L for rivers and streams (Ontario’s Ministry
of Environment [MOE], 1979). The lake’s phosphorus concentrations never exceeded 0.02
mg/L, with 0.01 mg/L between the threshold and the highest recorded 2019 lake phosphorus
concentration. Phosphorus concentrations also did not exceed the 0.03 mg/L stream threshold
for the Outlet.
The South Inlet site exceeded the 0.03 mg/L MOECC stream guideline for phosphorus during
the entire 2019 sampling season. This sample site has exceeded the MOECC stream guideline
for phosphorus for each sample obtained during the 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 field seasons.
As there are few natural phosphorus inputs into the environment, elevated concentrations
indicate an anthropogenic source. The North Inlet site also exceeded the 0.03 mg/L MOECC
stream guideline for phosphorus during July and August 2019.
Although the South Inlet exceeded MOECC stream phosphorus guidelines, phosphorus
concentrations within the stream appear to be relatively steady and decreasing slightly over the
past three years. The 2019 samples had a slightly higher mean concentration than the 2018
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Total Suspended Solids (mg/L)North South Outlet Lake
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samples. Although phosphorus concentrations in the South Inlet are the highest of the four FPL
sampling sites, the reduction in phosphorus concentrations suggests that the stream may be
slowly recovering from nutrient enrichment and that the control measures placed along any
developments feeding the South Inlet are helping.
Figure 10: Monthly total phosphorus concentrations from the lake, three stream sites and south culvert site at FPL from June-
October 2019. Red solid line indicates the 0.03 mg/L MOECC guideline for streams and rivers, while the red dotted line indicates
the 0.02 mg/L MOECC guideline for lakes.
Table 4: Mean and maximum phosphorus concentrations from June-October 2019 at the four sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018
results for comparison.
North Inlet South Inlet Outlet Lake
Mean Total
Phosphorus
(mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.031
(0.018/0.021/0.020)
0.086
(0.149/0.088/0.084)
0.010
(0.012/0.007/0.007)
0.009
(0.007/0.007/0.006)
Maximum Total
Phosphorus
(mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.014
(0.031/0.034/0.028)
0.004
(0.320/0.120/0.100)
0.007
(/0.027/0.008/0.008)
0.006
(0.008/0.010/0.007)
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Total Phosphorus (mg/L)North South Outlet Lake South - Secondary Below Development
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2.1.2.3. Total Nitrogen
Total nitrogen was analyzed at Maxxam monthly from June-October 2019 for all four FPL sites
(Figure 11). Total nitrogen ranged from 0.05 mg/L to 0.80 mg/L; the highest nitrogen
concentration was recorded at the South Inlet, while the highest mean nitrogen concentration
was recorded at the North Inlet (Table 5). The nitrogen concentration obtained at-depth,
below the thermocline in the lake, was 0.246 mg/L.
Nitrogen concentrations do not appear to be a problem in FPL. The CCME does not have a set
guideline for nitrogen in waters, as nitrogen is an essential nutrient to ecosystems; however,
Dodds and Welch (2000) established a 0.9 mg/L threshold for freshwater environments to avoid
excessive nutrient loading and eutrophication of the ecosystem. In addition, Underwood and
Josselyn (1979) have a 0.3 mg/L guideline for nitrogen concentrations in oligotrophic waters.
All four sample sites fell below the 0.9 mg/L threshold. The Lake site also fell below the 0.3
mg/L guideline. As all four sites are under the nutrient-loading threshold, and the lake is within
oligotrophic nitrogen levels, the risk of nutrient enrichment via nitrogen continues to appear to
be minimal for FPL.
Figure 11: Monthly total nitrogen concentrations from the lake and three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red line
indicates the 0.9 mg/L guideline for freshwater environments, as set by Dodds and Welch (2000).
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Total Nitrogen (mg/L)North South Outlet Lake South - Secondary Below Development
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Table 5: Mean and maximum nitrogen concentrations from June-October 2019 at the four sites, with 2016, 2017, and 2018
results for comparison.
North Inlet South Inlet Outlet Lake
Mean Total
Nitrogen (mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.535
(0.481/0.478/0.397)
0.509
(0.612/0.595/0.528)
0.341
(0.236/0.244/0.238)
0.259
(0.241/0.236/0.245)
Maximum Total
Nitrogen (mg/L)
(2016/2017/2018)
0.661
(0.584/0.605/0.660)
0.797
(0.763/0.683/0.630)
0.625
(0.298/0.264/0.292)
0.307
(0.266/0.276/0.439)
2.1.3. Biological Water Quality Parameters
2.1.3.1. Fecal Bacteria
In 2019, the FPL Monitoring Program switched from monitoring fecal coliforms to monitoring
Escherichia coli (E. coli) to align with Health Canada’s recommended use of E. coli as the primary
indicator of fecal contamination in freshwaters. Health Canada has set primary and secondary
recreational contact guidelines for E. coli in freshwaters, ≤400 CFU/100 mL and ≤1000 CFU/100
mL, respectively (Health Canada, 2012).
Fecal bacteria samples were collected from each FPL site monthly during the 2019 field season
(Figure 12). Samples ranged from <10 CFU/100 mL to 540 CFU/100 mL. The North Inlet had the
highest mean E. coli concentration of 130.0 CFU/100 mL and a median value of 15.0 CFU/100
mL for 2019, indicating that extreme values are skewing the 2019 statistical mean at the site.
Direct comparisons between E. coli and fecal coliform concentrations are not possible;
however, both increases in fecal bacteria concentrations in 2018 and 2019 occurred directly
following a rainfall event.
During the rainfall-dependent sampling event, bacteria concentrations spiked in both the North
and South Inlets and resulted in the sole exceedance of Health Canada’s primary contact
recreational guideline during the sampling period. The North Inlet increased from 10 CFU/100
mL from June to August, and then spiked to 540 CFU/100 mL on September 9, 2019 following
the rainfall event. This value exceeded the primary contact guideline. The increases in bacteria
during the rainfall event may be due to drought conditions before the rain, as bacteria
concentrate in pools during the low-discharge period and then these bacteria-rich pools are
flushed during rainfall events (Caruso, 2001). It should be noted that the raised bacteria
concentrations during this storm were not the highest bacteria concentrations recorded during
the FPL program (Figure 14), and that drought-induced bacteria concentrations have been
shown to be dominated by wildlife sources rather than human sources – though this has not
been confirmed in FPL (Shehane et al., 2005).
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During the 2018 field season, construction of a house and barn occurred just below the South
Inlet sampling site. Livestock and manure on this property increase the risk of fecal bacteria
contamination of the South Inlet due to the increased presence and potential leaching of
animal feces into the water from overland flow.
Figure 12. Monthly fecal bacteria concentrations from the lake and the three stream sites at FPL from June-October 2019. Red
solid line indicates the Health Canada 400 CFU/100 mL limit for primary recreation in freshwater.
2.1.3.2. Microcystins and Algal Blooms
An algal bloom was not observed or sampled in Fox Point Lake in 2019; however, Nova Scotia
Environment (NSE) was contacted regarding a potential bloom. An NSE inspector made a site
visit and obtained a grab sample; it was determined that no bloom was present.
2.2. Sediment Sampling
Sediment sampling from the Southwest side of the lake (known as ‘SW Cove’) and from the
South Inlet occurred on September 11th, 2019. The substrate from both sites was analyzed for
metals, phosphorus, and orthophosphate, to assess the risk of internal nutrient loading within
the lake and potential risk from accumulation of metals within the sediments (Tables 6 & 7).
Within the lake, the substrate indicates a risk of bioaccumulation. Of the three guidelines used
for comparison – the CCME’s recommended interim sediment quality guideline (ISQG), the
CCME’s probable effect level (PEL), and the Nova Scotia Environmental Quality Standards
(NSEQS) contamination threshold – arsenic, cadmium, lead, and selenium exceeded guidelines
(CCME, 2001; NSE, 2014). While arsenic, cadmium, and lead exceeded ISQG thresholds,
selenium was greater than the NSE contamination threshold. All four metals are greater than
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
E. coli (CFU/100 mL)E.coli 2019
North South Outlet Lake
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their 2018 concentrations. Due to the increase of metals exceeding guidelines, the impacts of
pollution have increased in the lake and may pose a risk to aquatic life.
Within the South Inlet, arsenic and mercury concentrations pose a risk to aquatic organisms.
Arsenic concentrations exceeded NSE guidelines and mercury exceeded ISQG guidelines; both
metals increased from 2018 concentrations. Organisms living within this stream should be
considered at-risk for bioaccumulation. Any fisheries should be limited to the lake, where the
inputs from the South Inlet are diluted and do not appear to affect the overall sediment quality
within the lake.
As discussed in Section 2.1.3.1, development along the South Inlet may be detrimental to water
quality. The development of the residential property near the stream may pose issues with
water quality within the remaining stretch of the South Inlet. As the South Inlet’s sediment is
contaminated with heavy metals, disturbance of the sediment and additions of pollutants to
the sediment can result in the release and contamination of metals into the water , thereby
affecting water quality and organisms.
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Table 6: Concentration of metals within site sediment samples sampled on September 11th, 2019. Interim sediment quality
guideline (ISQG) is the recommendation by CCME of total concentrations of chemicals in surficial sediment, while the probable
effect level (PEL) is the CCME upper value in which adverse effects are expected (CCME, 2001). Nova Scotia environmental
quality standards (NSEQS) are sediment guidelines specifically for contaminated sites set by the Nova Scotia Environment (NSE,
2014). Light yellow indicates parameters approaching one of the guidelines, while red indicates an exceedance of one of the
guidelines.
Sediment Sample Concentrations Concentration Guidelines
Metals Units SW Cove South Inlet RDL* ISQG PEL NSEQS
Acid Extractable Aluminum (Al) mg/kg 10000 6200 10
Acid Extractable Antimony (Sb) mg/kg ND ND 2.0 25
Acid Extractable Arsenic (As) mg/kg 6.1 22 2.0 5.9 17 17
Acid Extractable Barium (Ba) mg/kg 37 54 5.0
Acid Extractable Beryllium (Be) mg/kg 2.4 ND 2.0
Acid Extractable Bismuth (Bi) mg/kg ND ND 2.0
Acid Extractable Boron (B) mg/kg ND ND 50
Acid Extractable Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg 0.80 0.37 0.30 0.6 3.5 3.5
Acid Extractable Chromium (Cr) mg/kg 6.4 4.4 2.0 37.3 90 90
Acid Extractable Cobalt (Co) mg/kg 1.1 3.3 1.0
Acid Extractable Copper (Cu) mg/kg 11 8.3 2.0 35.7 197 197
Acid Extractable Iron (Fe) mg/kg 3200 12000 50 47,766
Acid Extractable Lead (Pb) mg/kg 50 31 0.50 35 91.3 91.3
Acid Extractable Lithium (Li) mg/kg 7.6 9.3 2.0
Acid Extractable Manganese (Mn) mg/kg 150 550 2.0 1,100
Acid Extractable Mercury (Hg) mg/kg 0.16 0.17 0.10 0.17 0.486 0.486
Acid Extractable Molybdenum (Mo) mg/kg ND ND 2.0
Acid Extractable Nickel (Ni) mg/kg 4.6 3.8 2.0 75
Acid Extractable Phosphorus (P) mg/kg 1,100.0 920.0 100.0
Acid Extractable Rubidium (Rb) mg/kg 6.2 9.0 2.0
Acid Extractable Selenium (Se) mg/kg 2.7 1.0 1.0 2
Acid Extractable Silver (Ag) mg/kg ND ND 0.50 1
Acid Extractable Strontium (Sr) mg/kg 11 24 5.0
Acid Extractable Thallium (Tl) mg/kg 0.13 0.10 0.10
Acid Extractable Tin (Sn) mg/kg 3.2 1.1 1.0
Acid Extractable Uranium (U) mg/kg 14 10 0.10
Acid Extractable Vanadium (V) mg/kg 15 10 2.0
Acid Extractable Zinc (Zn) mg/kg 50 35 5.0 123 315 315
*RDL = Reportable Detection Limit; ND = Not Detected
Concentrations of both acid extractable phosphorus and bioavailable orthophosphate were
analyzed within both sites’ substrates (Table 7). Within the SW Cove, orthophosphate
constituted just 0.022% of total phosphorus - this is a decrease from 2018. Although the
fraction of orthophosphate fell from 2018 values, both orthophosphate and phosphorus
concentrations in sediment increased from 2018 – by 3.58 and 10 times, respectively. Within
the South Inlet, orthophosphate made up 0.06% of total phosphorus, a decrease from 2018
values due to a greater increase in phosphorus concentrations within the sediment compared
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to the increased orthophosphate fraction. Although there is a decrease in the fraction of
orthophosphate in the sediment compared to 2018, the increase in orthophosphate
concentrations suggests that there is more bioavailable phosphorus within the lake and South
Inlet sediment in 2019 than 2018, which can result in nutrient enrichment during fall turnover if
the available orthophosphate stores increase and are not assimilated.
Although orthophosphate concentrations have increased, total phosphorus concentrations
within the sediment of both sites suggest marginally polluted sediment. According to Ontario’s
provincial sediment quality guidelines, pollution can range from clean/marginally polluted
(‘lowest effect level’) at 600 mg/kg of phosphorus to heavily contaminated (‘severe effect
level’) at >2000 mg/kg of phosphorus in sediment (Ontario MOE, 2008). Both the South Inlet
and SW Cove have marginally polluted sediment, exceeding the 600 mg/kg boundary by 320
mg/kg and 500 mg/kg, respectively. Although the South Inlet was also marginally polluted in
2018, the change in pollution status for the SW Cove, and the increase in total phosphorus at
both sites, indicates an increase of pollution over the past year.
Table 7: Phosphorus concentrations in sediment samples from lake and stream sites sampled on September 11th, 2019.
SW Cove South Inlet
Orthophosphate in sediment (mg/kg) 0.24 0.55
Acid extractable phosphorus in sediment (mg/kg) 1100 920
3. Discussion
3.1. Algae Blooms in Fox Point Lake
For FPL, no bloom was sampled in 2019. Although no bloom was observed by the committee, a
bloom at FPL was reported to NSE. An initial site visit and grab sample by an NSE Inspector
determined that no bloom was present.
Although no blooms were sampled in 2019, FPL remains vulnerable to blooms in the future. As
algal blooms can be induced and intensified by increases in nutrients to ecosystems (whether
naturally from mixing of waters or anthropogenically from pollution), trends in algal blooms are
hard to predict and can vary spatially. Increases in total nitrogen and phosphorus
concentrations in FPL increase the potential for blooms to occur. The literature predicts
increases in both size and frequency of blooms, globally, in the future (Michalak et al., 2013).
Algal blooms should continue to be monitored and tested within FPL, with residents made
aware of algal bloom causes, health effects, precautions to take, and the reporting procedure if
a bloom occurs.
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3.2. Trophic State of Fox Point Lake
Using various water parameters, the biological productivity of a lake can be assessed and
monitored for changes over time. Based on the mean depth of transparency (Secchi disk), and
mean concentrations of chlorophyll a and phosphorus, a Trophic State Index (TSI) score can be
calculated using the Carlson (1977) equations (Equations 1, 2, and 3). By calculating a TSI of a
waterbody, the biological state (trophic state) of the water and how it changes over time can be
monitored. Trophic states range from oligotrophic (low productivity and minimal biomass) to
hypereutrophic (high productivity and maximum biomass).
Equation 1: 𝑆𝑆𝐼 (𝑆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖ℎ 𝑐�ℎ𝑟𝑘)=60 −14.41 × ln(𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑘 𝑆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑖ℎ 𝑐�ℎ𝑟𝑘 [𝑘])
Equation 2: 𝑆𝑆𝐼 (𝑐�𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑘𝑘�𝑦𝑘𝑘 𝐴)=30.6 +9.81 × ln(𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑘 𝑐�𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑘𝑘�𝑦𝑘𝑘 𝑎 [𝜇𝑔
𝐿])
Equation 3: 𝑆𝑆𝐼 (𝑟𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑘 𝑘�𝑘𝑟𝑘�𝑘𝑟𝑟𝑟)=4.15 +14.42 × ln(𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑘 𝑟𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑘 𝑘�𝑘𝑟𝑘�𝑘𝑟𝑟𝑟 [𝜇𝑔
𝐿])
For FPL, the trophic state has consistently been recorded as oligotrophic approaching
mesotrophic from 2015-2019 (Table 8). Phosphorus and chlorophyll a concentrations are
within the oligotrophic range, while the Secchi disk score falls within the mesotrophic range
(Table 8, Figure 15). Although the transparency via Secchi disk is not an exact indication of a
waterbody’s productivity due to interference by factors other than biomass (such as suspended
particles within the water column (NSSA, 2014; United States Environmental Protection Agency
[US EPA], 2002), the borderline chlorophyll a concentrations from the several years, in addition
to the increase in total phosphorus concentrations, suggest a shift towards a mesotrophic state.
Table 8: 2019 FPL TSI scores (red) and trophic states, using the Carlson (1977) trophic equations, for total phosphorus,
chlorophyll a, and Secchi disk compared to previous years (black italicized).
TSI Score Trophic State Phosphorus
(2015/2016/2017/2018)
Chlorophyll a
(2015/2016/2017/2018)
Secchi Disk
(2015/2016/2017/2018)
< 40 Oligotrophic 35.01
(37/31.8/32.2/29.99)
38.90
(34/41.5/37.3/39.09)
40-50 Mesotrophic
47.17
(49/45.7/45.5/47.55)
> 50 Eutrophic
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Figure 133: Carlson TSI for FPL using the mean Secchi disk depth (transparency), mean chlorophyll a concentration and mean
total phosphorus concentration within FPL in 2019. From Carlson, 1977.
3.3. Potential for Nutrient Enrichment of Fox Point Lake
Excessive nutrients entering FPL can be detrimental to the health of the lake and will change
the lake’s trophic status. Nutrient enrichment can be from both external and internal loading
sources. External sources can be natural (wildlife waste, plant decomposition, etc.) or
anthropogenic (septic tank malfunction, fertilizer application, livestock waste, composter
leachate, etc.) (Sereda et al., 2008; Wetzel, 1990; Dion et al., 1983). Internal sources come
from within the lake, whether nutrients trapped within the lake substrate (i.e.,
orthophosphate) or nutrients trapped in the water below the thermocline, and therefore can’t
be mixed and dispersed throughout the lake (Sondergaard et al., 2003; Kennedy and Walker,
1990).
Within FPL, external loading appears to affect the inlet streams more than the lake. Both inlet
streams had greater nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations compared to the lake.
Concentrations of nitrogen also increased within the two inlets following a rainfall event. The
elevated nutrient concentrations of these two inlet streams suggests a level of pollution related
to nutrients, particularly phosphorus entering the South Inlet from nearby sources. Nutrient
loading within the two inlets is further increased during rainstorms via overland flow. Further
increases in nutrients from either stream may affect the delicate balance within the lake and
cause eutrophication.
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Internal loading poses a risk to nutrient enrichment and eutrophication in FPL. Within the
water column, there are comparable nitrogen concentrations and an increase in phosphorus
concentrations below the thermocline compared to the surface waters (Table 9). When fall
turnover occurs, the redistribution of these elevated levels of nutrients results in a source of
internal loading and may cause eutrophication of the lake. Nutrients in sediments is an
additional internal loading source. Although orthophosphate makes up only 0.022% of total
phosphorus in the SW Cove sediment, the increase in total phosphorus concentrations (from
110 mg/kg to 1100 mg/kg) suggests an increase in pollution. In addition, the release of
phosphorus from sediment is not limited to lakes and can also occur in streams; the South
Inlet’s marginally phosphorus-polluted stream acts as an additional source of nutrients which
may impact the lake.
Table 9: Nutrient concentrations from surface and depth waters (below the thermocline) within FPL, obtained on September
11th, 2019.
Surface Waters At-Depth Waters
Phosphorus Concentrations (mg/L) 0.007 0.012
Nitrogen Concentrations (mg/L) 0.261 0.246
The development occurring along the South Inlet appears to be impacting nutrient enrichment
within FPL (Table 10) and warrants further investigation. The barn located on the property is
used to house animals, with their waste stored on site. As animal waste contains bacteria and
nutrients (Vanni, 2002), these can be flushed into the South Inlet and eventually the lake.
During the rainfall-only sampling event, a secondary South Inlet sample was collected, below
the residential property. Differences between nutrients from the two sites indicate that the
development is a source of nutrients for the South Inlet and lake. In addition, increases in both
phosphorus and orthophosphate concentrations at the SW Cove in the lake indicate enrichment
within the lake, potentially associated with development along the South inlet (although it
should be noted that both phosphorus and orthophosphate concentrations increased at th e
upstream South Inlet site as well, Table 7). The addition of nutrients into the South Inlet
increases the potential for lake enrichment – especially after rainfall, and possible
eutrophication and algae blooms, as the presence of key nutrients stops limiting the growth of
organisms within the lake.
Table 10: Nutrient concentrations from the two South Inlet sites, obtained on September 9th, 2019 following the Hurricane
Dorian rainfall event.
South Inlet South Inlet Below
Development
Difference
Phosphorus Concentrations
(mg/L)
0.049 0.049 0.000
Nitrogen Concentrations
(mg/L)
0.645 0.661 0.016
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4. Recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested for the FPL Water Quality Monitoring Program,
based on the 2019 water quality results:
• The FPL Water Quality Monitoring Program should continue in 2019 and beyond.
o The program should continue to collect monthly water samples from all four
sites.
o Due to the high nutrients and bacteria measured at the second South Inlet site,
consideration should be given to adding the secondary site to the monthly
sampling program or retain the site for continued rainfall-dependent sampling.
o The program should continue to obtain one-time sediment samples from the SW
Cove and South Inlet, as arsenic and mercury may pose a risk to aquatic
organisms’ health and should be monitored.
o One-time lake water samples from below the thermocline should continue to be
monitored to assess the risk associated with internal loading and potential late-
season algal blooms.
o The program should continue to supply FPL volunteers with certified bottles to
sample and test for the presence of microcystins-LR during future algal blooms.
• Due to the expected increases in droughts and rainfall events associated with climate
change, the one-time, rainfall-dependent sampling event should continue to be included
in the FPL Water Quality Monitoring Program.
• To reduce the time and effort required of volunteers, a weather station should be added
at the lake, to monitor temperature and precipitation throughout the sampling program
rather than the daily monitoring of a rain gauge.
• As the FPL Water Quality Monitoring Program has been ongoing since 2015 , the WQMC
should implement a communications plan to inform community members and visitors of
the water quality work in FPL. The plan should include tips to be water-friendly,
information to increase awareness of water quality and degradation within the area,
and a way for citizens to contact the committee. This may act as a source of additional
members becoming involved and volunteering with the committee and sampling team
and will increase the spatial coverage volunteers have when monitoring the lake for
algal blooms.
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5. References
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Brylinsky, M. (2004). User’s Manual for Prediction of Phosphorus Concentration in Nova Scotia
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Michalak, A.M., Anderson, E.J., Beletsky, D., Boland, S., Bosch, N.S., Bridgeman, T.B., Chaffin,
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Sites, Rationale and Guidance Document. Version 1.0, April 2014. 57 p.
Nova Scotia Salmon Association (NSSA) NSLC Adopt-A-Stream Program. (2014). Walking the
River: A Citizen’s Guide to Interpreting Water Quality Data. 43 p.
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Ontario’s Provincial Water Quality Objectives. Queen’s Printer for Ontario. 236 p.
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nutrients in lakes. Freshwater Biology, 53(2), 278-289.
Shehane, S. D., Harwood, V. J., Whitlock, J. E., and Rose, J. B. (2005). The influence of rainfall on
the incidence of microbial faecal indicators and the dominant sources of faecal pollution in
a Florida river. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 98(5), 1127-1136.
Smith, S. A., and Bella, D. A. (1973). Dissolved oxygen and temperature in a stratified
lake. Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), 119-133.
Søndergaard, M., Jensen, J. P., and Jeppesen, E. (2003). Role of sediment and internal loading of
phosphorus in shallow lakes. Hydrobiologia, 506(1-3), 135-145.
Underwood, J.K., and Josselyn, D.M. (1979). The extent of road salt and nutrient stressing of
Williams Lake, Halifax, Nova Scotia. N.S. Dept. Env. Lib. #W724 79/08. 88p.
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Methods Manual. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 65 p.
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regulators. Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie:
Verhandlungen, 24(1), 6-24.
Vanni, M. J. (2002). Nutrient cycling by animals in freshwater ecosystems. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics, 33(1), 341-370.